Add Media

No PSYCHOLOGY REVISION- MRS DAWSON Models of dependence on that point be different simulates of colony, these be the biological model, the cognitive model and the sociable learning model. Initiation this refers to the process where individuals start to constrain habit-forming Maintance this is the process whereby quite a little continue to be rich person addictively even in the face of adverse consequences turnaround this is the process whereby individuals who have managed to give their addictive habit start to show signs and symptoms of the behavior again. BIOLOGICAL MODEL They say that it is an illness.Addiction is an illness at that placefore the problem is within the person. Because it is an illness, it bed be cured. We are born with something and that something is befool offed off. More credibly to be prone to it. If a person quits their habituation, a biological predisposition makes recidivate more possible. The office staff of dopamine in addiction Initi ation- Research shows addiction always stimulates the reward circuit in the brain. Rewarding experiences triggers the release of dopamine and in effect tell the brain to do it again. Maintance Drugs eventually result in a reduction in the activity of positive reward circuits in the brain.The oppose state then sire in dominant driving force in the dose calling. The individual doesnt lay down the drug for pleasure, entirely takes it to keep off unpleasement. Because of this, they need more of the drug. Relapse Eventually the desire for the drug may assume more importance than more other desires. The frontal cortex has become less(prenominal) effective at making decisions and judging the consequences of action. Imminent reward that forces the addict to take the drugs. The endogenous opiod system This is a quality of addiction. It also includes the brain. Transmitters in the brain include enkeohain and the endorphins.They are activated in pleasure. Naltexrexone this is an al cohol discourse, which prevents opiod receptors, and this also prevents effects of alcohol. Neurodaptation KOCH AND LE MOAL says drugs dependence is to do with neuroadptations. They state that psychoactive drugs change the brains wiring. If stopped, the changes are no longer needed and causes disruption. Genetics Good way to question this is to study twins. Family studies then to illustrate environmental factors in the exploitation of addiction as well. Need to see if it is environmental or genetic.Agravel & Lynsky 2006 genetic fascinate with heritability estimates ranging between 45% -> 79% Kender et all (1998) 1934 female twins. Drug addiction was mainly due to genetic factor. Blum et al (1991) addictive off springs had the A1 gene showed that they had hardly a(prenominal)er dopamine receptors. Those who have these gens are more plausibly to be addicted to drugs which forget produce more dopamine. But this could be because they have fewer dopamine. EVAULATION OF BIOLOG ICAL MODEL X range is too wide X animals are not humans so cant verify. v formulates why some tribe are addicted X BUT sometimes it depends on the environmentX neurotransmitters have complex effects. Not fully understood X neglects social situations X too reductionalist US s olderiers took drugs while they were away but once they were kin they didnt. X some people may be experimenters ? chicken or the egg X very correlation. Cant connect them in a cause and effect way. X need more research in to it X people may indulge but not addicted X animal studies LEARNING THEORY OF ADDICTION Acquires habits, which are learnt according to the principles of SLT. Things can be unlearned. There are different degrees of addiction. Bandura Bobo doll Children learnt via observation several(prenominal) one who is reinforced (operant) their conduct is more likely yo be limited Vicarious reinforcer reinforcement received indirectly by observing individual else and creation reinforced Imitating someone we admire Cognitive labelling model An alcoholic walks pass a pub. The cue, associated with the inebriationing gives a psychological response and actives a memory of drinking. The sign of a gamy heart rate tells the person they need a drink. Outcome expectancy model Someone who has an addictive behaviour, when they are confronted with a cue for the drug, it baron trigger thoughts of excitement and would do it againClassical conditioning Addictive behaviour is also seen as being explained by classical conditioning. Drug abuse became associated with certain environmental factors until these factors wholly produce a high-pitched. Intuition, maintance and sink are due to learning experiences involving environmental. The cue-reacting theory Carter and Tiffany (1999) addicts associates things, which were similar to their addiction. Explained via classical conditioning. The cues become able to elite conditioning responses even in the absence of the action green goddess or fun behaviour. Operant conditioningPositive reinforcement Pleasant consequences Negative reinforcement Something unpleasant (likely to be repeated) Punishment Unpleasant consequences. less(prenominal) likely to be repeated. Addicts change their behaviour in response to rewards and punishment. Bring about change in mood and material changes. Skinner worked with animals. Greater behaviour changes when he gave less reinforcement or when they are unpredictable. Can explain why gamblers may get addicted. They are not winning all the time, makes need strange. Learning Model Initiation initial rewards shapes future behaviourMaintance continues rewards reinforce and maintain behaviour Relapse person giving up, relapse might be less likely if they have relearnt the addictive behaviour all individuals are equally suspicious EVAULATION X animals X learning theories are reductionalists v can explain differences COGNITIVE MODEL OF ADDICTION Cognitive is thinking. This emphasises the habitua l ways people deal with life events may soupcon to addicitive behabviour. A person can swan on drugs or even gambling as a way of coping with lifes problems. But these may create more problems than causes.Beck et al the vicious cycle first mood -gt using dope/ gambling -gt finacial, medical or social problem -gt the cycle continues Low mood can be relieved by addictive behaviour. Addiction can lead to problems. These problems lead to confuse mood. The cycle begins again. Coping self mediciation model Initation indivduals uses the addicitive behaviour to copy with focussing/psycholoigcal problems. It is not choosen at random, it has been selected to help with a particular problem. Helps fulfil the 3 main functions mood regulation performance management distractionMaintance and relapse many smaller mention stress relief as a major reason why they keep to their habit Self efficacy theory BANDORA This refers to one being organised and escort any actions required to meet p articular goal. This plays an important part in whether or not a person go away start to engage in addicitive behaviour (initation). Whether they believe they can do anything about it once established (maintance and relaspe) FAULTY THINKING Addicters lie to themselves because they think that it may bring them luck. But not all things are luck but people believe that whhat they are doing is correct.EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE MODEL Strenghts. v cognitive explanations help explain individuals differences. Not everyone is addicitive X relative success of cognitive treatment of addicition support there is some cognitive basis Weaknessess X publication bias studies show a necktie between positive expectations and drinking behaviour. But not all studies are publlished so we get an unrepresentative view EXPLANATIONS FOR SPECIFIC ADDICTIONS Smoking Smoking produces a phsyical addicition to nicotine, influencing dopamine production and the brain reward system. The WHO (world health organi sations) estimates there are 1. billion smokers worldwide and they smoke 6 trilliopn cigarettes a year. Bad for you Smoking leads to high blood pressure, heart disease, lung disease, cancer and strokes. Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to have premature babies. The fact peoe still smoke knowing the facts shows how addicitve it is. Nicotine There are about 3000 chemical components in cigarette smoke but nicotime is the addicitve chemical. HILTS (1994) compared nicotine with heroin, cocaine, alcohol,m caffeine and cannabis. He ranked nicotine first baseest in landmarks of effect but highest in terms of dependence.Smokers why try to give up have a relapse rate of 70%. Quickly Addictive DIFRANZA (2007) found juvenile smokers had strong craving cigarettes two days after staring, suggesting how quickly people became addicted. Reasons to smoke biological model Nicotine in cigarettes is seen as affecting production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine, producing a reward effect. Genetics have more vulnerabilty to smoking addicition. SHIELDS (1992) looked at 42 twins pairs who had been reared apart. Only 9 wre discordant for smoking (one was and was a non smoker, which suggests that genes may play a part) complaisant FactorsMost people start smoking in their childhood or adolescence. Operant conditioning does not explain this because the first few cigarettes taste horrible. So OC says that they get rewards from peers. Social Learning Theory Children copy their role models because they think it is all right to smoke. Parents But one main crook is the parents. LADER AND MATHESON (1991) said if parents smoked, children were twice as likely to smoke. Cognitive model The cognitive model suggests that teenagers have strategies for not smoking even when pressurised by peers.But there was a group who were ready to smoke (MITCHELL and WEST 1996) mortal differences In a US study, it suggests strong links between smoking and poor school records, bas eborn self- jimmy no sport, and other illegal drug taking. Cognitive factors Smokers are seen as possessing irrational thoughts for instance that smoking improves cognitive functionoing or calm nerves. such(prenominal) dysfunctional ideas can be self-fulfilling AO2 The fact that biological therapies help people quit supports the biological theory. Many people quit nicotine replacements suggesting social and cognitive factors. backup evidenceNIDA (2005) found that 90% of American smokers started as teenagers, mainly as a result of copying peers, suggesting SLT as a cause of initiation of smoking. A novel Canadian study (Khaled 2005) found that there was a link between depression and nicotine where depression was higher in smokers and even higher in smokers who cute to give up. PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS Need to meet 5/10 to be problem gamblers. More than 5, you are a pathological gambler. 1/ preoccupation with gambling 2/ need to gamble with increasing amount of money in order to achie ve the desired excitement 3/ repeated unsuccessful efforts to keep in line/out back or stop gambling. / restlessness or irritability when trying to out take on gambling. 5/ use of gambling as means of escaping from problems or relieving dysphonic mood. 6/ return to gambling even after losing money, in the hope of winning it back 7/ lying to family members, therapists or others to turn back the extent of gambling 8/ committing illegal acts such as forgery, fraud or theft to financial gambling 9/ jeopardising or losing significant relationships/jobs/educational opportunist as a result of gambling 10/ reliance on others to produce money to relieve a desperate situation caused by gambling Getting a highOne of the motivators is the high they experience when they are close to winning. Raised levels of dopamine and noradrenalin have been found in people after episodes of gambling and in serious gamblers. These neurochemicals can be raised with the thought of gambling. biological Stoppin g gambling seems to result in the same tolerant of withdrawal symptoms associated with stopping drugs. ROSENTHAL ET AL (1992) found that over 60% of pathology gamblers, reported physical withdraw and these could be compared with withdrawal of drugs. A number of studies have shown a link between potential brain abnormalities.It is linked between front lobe dysfunction and problem gambling (CAVEAINI ET AL 2002) Genetics There is evidence from studies that gambling could be inherited. Results of a twin study from SHAH (2005) found evidence of genetic transmission of gambling in men. Behavioural/sociocultural factors You are more likely to gamble if you are near a gambling area Alcohol It has been suggested that drinking increasing gambling, particularly in problem gambling. Young, game- motorcar gamblers stay on the machine longer when drinking. (POLS ET AL 1991). However, regular casino gamblers drink less when they are gambling.Behavioural SLT says that people copy from others. Ope rant says that people do it for rewards and getting high. Classical says that people associate the winning with the pleasure. Cognitive ZUCKERMAN (1979) claimed there are individual differences in the need for sensation seeking. They look for varied and new experiences. They have a low appreciation of gamble and look forward to the buzz more than low sensation seeks. Vulnerability of addiction Self esteem Teenagers are more likely to be linked with low self esteem and have addictive behaviours. Higher rates of depression and suicide DEVERENSKY 2003LEVY 2009 low self esteem plus the chances of developing addiction. Genetic vulnerability. Several factors might be required have an addiction. AO2 Cause and effect addiction because of low self esteem or low self esteem causes addiction. GREENBERG ET AL (1999) found that in a sample of 129-addiction student, none had issues with low self esteem. Psychological therapies based on realizing self esteem levels in addicts may stop them r elapsing. Attributions Explanations people give for their own behaviour. Cognitive behaviour can play a part in addictive behaviour.MOORE ET AL (1999) says that young male problem gamblers sometimes have unrealistic ideas about their chances of winning and of their ability to make things happen. People with addictive behaviour frequently have poor self efficacy (blame the outside world) and an external locus of control. They dont blame their selves. SENEVITNE ET AL (2000) used a questionnaire and 70 alcoholics. The found that alcoholics see other relapse because they have poor will power while their own relapsed were beyond their control and not their fault. AO2 May have more to do with responsibility of the addict.Therapies focus on positive beliefs on the addicts own power can lead to better success rates. Fast successful quitters in clinics oftentimes relapse on the outside as they blame outside cues to starting again. Personality EYSENCH (1997) psychological resource model w hich has 3 dimensions which are inherited P (psychoticism) Aggressive, coldness, impulsivity and egocentricity N (neuroticism) Moodiness, imitabilty and anxiety E (extraversion) Optimums, liveliness and sociability There is little evidence to support a link between E and drug dependence. N and P have links with addiction to heroin, alcohol and nicotine.There is a correlation between alcohol addiction and anti social personalities. Gender Men are more likely to gamble because they are more competitive. Recent evidence has shown that there is an increase of women gamblers. With females, they are more likely to be addicted to smoking because of the risks of the consequences. (FOX 1994) However, in gambling more boys are regular gamblers than girls. JACOBS 2001 says boys start gambling earlier, spend more money and enjoy competitive skill based games. Social context Social context can knead vulnerability to dependency in many ways.Parents can be influenced through their own names to add ictive behaviours. Drinking and to a lesser extent, smoking are not seen as sociability acceptable behaviours. CICCHETTIC 1999 states getting drunk and being anti-social can lead to drug abuse as can being depressed or anxious as a teenager. WAGNER ET AL 2002 found cannabis users were more likely to take cocaine so the social context can act as a gateway to harder drugs. AO2 LESHNER 1998 believes that treatment must include social context differently if cue addict returns to the same social context, they will relapse.KUENTZEL 2008 found that pathological gambler give socially acceptable answers in self reports, playing down their addiction, suggesting data could be invalid. Family influence Teenagers copied off other SLT. It also shows that a liberal attitude to drugs, poor bonding and dysfunctional relationship can lead to addictive behaviour. Parents are unconcerned about their children. Sociocultural background H solely 1990 found people in lower socio economic backgrounds were more likely to take drugs. Poor education + live in areas = high crime VITARA (2001) linked between alcohol abuse and problem gambling particularly in males.The role of media in addictive behaviour The media has influence on addictive behaviour. Advertising This can be used to encourage sales of alcoholic drinks and the lottery etc. or by the government to start anti-smoking campaigns etc. Alcohol and cigarettes CHAPMAN ET ALL 1982 found underage smokers preferred the more adverting brands. ATKIN ET AL 1984 found that 12-17 years old who had watched more adverts on drinking alcohol were more likely to approve of underage drinking. Banned on advert for cigarettes Cigarettes adverting is now banned in the UK as evidence as shown people are influenced by the advert they see.Role models Alcohol seems acceptable because of TV and films. SLT suggests we learn what we see which means TV characterises may influence the audience. Smokers, gamblers or drinkers as long as they are loveable r ogues could be seen as role models. CHARLTON 1986 seeing adverts made children associate smoking with looking handsome up GUNSEKA 2005 found that drug taking in films to be portrayed in positive fashion with little reference to negative outcomes. AO2 Media can be positive influence on addictive behaviour. Media create moral panics which would stop addicts.The impact of media on addictive behaviour is hard to assess as research is correlation so dont know what other variables are in place. Models of prevention of addiction Addiction = bad for a person and parliamentary procedure Behaviour can stem from biological behaviour and cognitive factors with the addictive behaviour/addiction. It is in our interest to help prevent them before they even being or help to stop someone intending to begin an addiction TRA THE THEORY OF REASONED ACTION AJZEN AND FISHBEIN 1975 There are three general components, attitude, subjective norms and behavioral intention.This theory states the factors th at are involved when people decide on their actions. People behave based on their attitudes of the behaviour and the interaction of what others will think of their behaviour. fundamentally this model believes that if you have an intention to engage in a behaviour it can predict that you make a decision to carry out the behaviour. CRANO ET ALL 2008 used TRA to estimate teenagers vulnerability to inhalant abuse, by assessing intention to use or avoid drug taking and actual behaviour. The model was found to be accurate as a predictive toll and thus useful in helping addicts to abstain.AO2 of TRA Critics see TRA as deficient in explaining behaviour of those who have little control over their behaviour, such as addicts. TRA does not consider personality and cultural factors or demographics that shape addictive behaviour. Addicts are often aware of their behaviour and that it is not rational but they cannot help their addiction. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR TPB TRA was modified to produce TPB, adding a new component, the influence of perceived control. The theory of planned behaviour perceived control this is similar to Banduras concept of self-efficacy.According to TPB behavioural intentions are the outcome of the following beliefs. Attitude this can be a positive or negative evaluation of behaviour combined with beliefs about the outcome (e. g giving up smoking will be hard but will improve health). Subjective norms, perception if social norms my friends will approve of my attempt to give up smoking. sensed Behaviour Control a belief that someone can give up. AO2 of TPB The model assumes behaviours are conscious reasoned and planned, which may not be the face with addicts.As with TRA, TPB often used questionnaires to gather data, which can have issues with self report and social desirability. Most research is western countries cultural bias as individuals might not be as important in eastern cultures. Types of intervention Stages of changes model PROCHASHA AND DICLEMENTE said there were 5 stages that have to be overcome to wave addiction Pre-contemplation before you start thinking about quitting the addiction. Contemplation when you start to quit your addiction. Preparation seek methods to stop addiction. Action is starting the stopping to the addiction Maintance.People sometimes switch backwards and forwards and this is called the revolving door phenomenon. People in the preparation stage were more likely to attempt to give up an addiction than those in the contemplation stage. Psychological interventions Aversion therapy Contingency contracting Cue exposure self management technique Aversion therapy Punishment rather than reward. Been used to break smoking and alcohol addiction. Electric shocks every time the individual took addiction but was not successful. The addicts have been given a drug called Antabuse, when they drink alcohol, they are sick. They will link between the two.LANG AND MARLETT TWO LIMITATIONS X not everyone was willing to take the drug. X doesnt explain why they become addicted to the behaviour. With smoking, therapy was successful. Had to puff every 6 seconds, made the individual feel ill and nausea, assisted the two SPIEGLAR AND GUEVREMONT. However, not been consistent across studies and a higher risk associated with this treatment for people who have heart problems. Didnt focus on the act of smoking rather than causing the underlying addiction. Contingency contracting Individual to identify the environmental factors that are associated with smoking/drinking.The therapist aim to gradually expose the client to different cues and helps them to develop coping strategies to deal with the cues without resorting to smoking/drinking. Reduces the patients physical dependence on alcohol. but it does not teach them to deal with cues when they return to every day life. Cue exposure Addictive behaviour are often caused in the pressure of various stimuli. Cue exposure involves presenting the cue to the individual and helping them t control their reaction to it. In this way the response of smoking in the pressure of alcohol fades away or exiting wishes.This is thought to be more effective than simply trying to avoid the cues. For example more drinking. Self-management technique This involves a variety of behavioural techniques. The individual is usually monitored by a therapist. The individual is asked to keep a daily record of their addictive habits and the changes to try and become aware of the things that make them become addictive. The individual should question the effects of the addiction. HALL ET ALL said that techniques can be used as a broader treatment programme, but they do not seem to be particularly effective on their own. EVAUALTIONWhile these behaviours based can be effective, they all share the problem that they do not really address the underlying reason why people have become addictive in the first place. Often short term With all therapies for addiction, the y work better if they are mixed with other therapies based on other treatment. Different ways/treatment to smoking/drinking/drugs Biological interventions have been widely used to help people give up on smoking. There have been different way of tackling with peoples smoking addiction. There are different types of treatment Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)This type of treatment involves nicotine gum, patches and nasal spray and others. These are effect because they help smokers stop their addiction in several ways. While the smoker take one of these replacement therapies, they are helping to withdraw the symptoms of smoking. These have also shown that these can have positive reinforcement with the person who is trying to give up. this meaning that the person is more likely to not do it again because they have something to distract them from the actual smoking. With this the client will used varies of different formulations and will easily used smaller formulations as gum.Even thou gh the client will have an urge to have a cigarettes, there are other ways to come about this. Nicotine patches help because they gradually emit nicotine throughout the day. If the client has a cigarette during the treatment, they are more likely to not repeat this again because the cigarette will be less satisfying. Bupropion Another way of helping with the addiction of smoking is bupropion. This drug works by increasing the brain levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, this simulates the effects of nicotine of these neurotransmitters. This is an effect treatment because it helped to block out the nicotine receptors.This means that the client is less likely that the client will relapse and have a cigarette. It has also bee proven my psychologists WATTS that it is successful. Varenicline This type of drug released dopamine in the brain. It also blocks effects of any nicotine added to the system. Trials have found that varenicline is superior to bupropion in helping people to stop smo king. Also it has helped smokers reduce the amount of cigarettes they have after a 12-week trial. Nicotine vaccines This is a new clinical trial, which is still undergoing at the moment.The type of trial is trying to help produce anti-bodies to the nicotine. The anti-bodies bind the nicotine so it takes longer to go to the brain. This therefore reduces the effect of the cigarettes smoke. EVALUTION Nicotine replacement therapy delivers nicotine into the bloodstream much more slowly than cigarette smokers does. But then it doesnt satisfy the smoker completely ad maybe the client will give up on the therapy and relapse. new(prenominal) research has shown that its the nicotine rather than other components that underlines the addiction and this maintains the cigarettes smoking.This therefore doesnt rid the client the nicotine addiction. There also have been issues with health and safety with the nicotine. Some research has shown that it could cause cardiovascular, cancer, reproductive d isorders and delayed wound healing. Because the body is still being supplied with nicotine, this could increase heart rate, coronary blood vessels and temporarily increase blooming(a) pressure. There are quite a few side effects to take just nicotine and because of this, it is advised not to take it during pregnancy but then again it is safer to take nicotine than to smoke in pregnancy.